Bibliography

Legislation

European Union

Treaties

Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union [2012] OJ C326/47

Regulations

Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 December 2006 on nutrition and health claims made on foods [2006] OJ L404/9

Regulation (EC) No 1008/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 September 2008 on common rules for the operation of air services in the Community (Recast) [2008] OJ L293/3

Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2011 on the provision of food information to consumers [2011] OJ L304/18

Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC [2016] OJ L119/1

Regulation (EU) 2017/2394 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2017 on cooperation between national authorities responsible for the enforcement of consumer protection laws and repealing Regulation (EC) No 2006/2004 [2017] OJ L345/1

Regulation (EU) 2022/1925 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 September 2022 on contestable and fair markets in the digital sector and amending Directives (EU) 2019/1937 and (EU) 2020/182 [2022] OJ L265/1

Regulation (EU) 2022/2065 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 October 2022 on a Single Market For Digital Services and amending Directive 2000/31/EC [2022] OJ L277/1

Regulation (EU) 2023/988 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 10 May 2023 on general product safety, amending Regulation (EU) No 1025/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council and Directive (EU) 2020/1828 of the European Parliament and the Council, and repealing Directive 2001/95/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council and Council Directive 87/357/EEC [2023] OJ L135/1

Directives

Council Directive 85/577/EEC of 20 December 1985 to protect the consumer in respect of contracts negotiated away from business premises [1985] OJ L372/31

Council Directive 93/13/EEC of 5 April 1993 on unfair terms in consumer contracts [1993] OJ L95/29

Directive 97/7/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 May 1997 on the protection of consumers in respect of distance contracts [1997] OJ L144/19

Directive 98/6/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 February 1998 on consumer protection in the indication of the prices of products offered to consumers [1998] OJ L80/27

Directive 1999/44/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 May 1999 on certain aspects of the sale of consumer goods and associated guarantees [1999] OJ L171/12

Directive 2000/13/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 March 2000 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to the labelling, presentation and advertising of foodstuffs [2000] OJ L109/29

Directive 2000/31/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2000 on certain legal aspects of information society services, in particular electronic commerce, in the Internal Market [2000] OJ L178/1

Directive 2001/95/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 3 December 2001 on general product safety [2001] OJ L11/4

Directive 2002/58/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 July 2002 concerning the processing of personal data and the protection of privacy in the electronic communications sector [2002] OJ L201/37

Directive 2005/29/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 May 2005 concerning unfair business-to-consumer commercial practices in the internal market and amending Council Directive 84/450/EEC, Directives 97/7/EC, 98/27/EC and 2002/65/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council and Regulation (EC) No 2006/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council [2005] OJ L149/22

Directive 2009/48/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 June 2009 on the safety of toys [2009] OJ L170/1

Directive 2011/83/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2011 on consumer rights, amending Council Directive 93/13/EEC and Directive 1999/44/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council and repealing Council Directive 85/577/EEC and Directive 97/7/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council [2001] OJ L304/64

Directive (EU) 2018/1972 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 2018 establishing the European Electronic Communications Code (Recast) [2018] OJ L321/36

Directive (EU) 2019/2161 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 November 2019 amending Council Directive 93/13/EEC and Directives 98/6/EC, 2005/29/EC and 2011/83/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council as regards the better enforcement and modernisation of Union consumer protection rules [2019] OJ L328/7

Directive (EU) 2019/771 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 May 2019 on certain aspects concerning contracts for the sale of goods, amending Regulation (EU) 2017/2394 and Directive 2009/22/EC, and repealing Directive 1999/44/EC [2019] OJ L136/28

Directive (EU) 2023/2673 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 November 2023 amending Directive 2011/83/EU as regards financial services contracts concluded at a distance and repealing Directive 2002/65/EC [2023] OJ L2023/2673

Directive (EU) 2024/825 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 28 February 2024 amending Directives 2005/29/EC and 2011/83/EU as regards empowering consumers for the green transition through better protection against unfair practices and through better information [2024] OJ L2024/825

Other EU legal acts

Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2019/2243 of 17 December 2019 establishing a template for the contract summary to be used by providers of publicly available electronic communications services pursuant to Directive (EU) 2018/1972 of the European Parliament and of the Council

Legislative proposals

European Union

‘Proposal for a DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL Amending Directive 2011/83/EU Concerning Financial Services Contracts Concluded at a Distance and Repealing Directive 2002/65/EC’ (European Commission 2022) COM(2022) 204 final

‘Proposal for a DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL Amending Directives 2005/29/EC and 2011/83/EU as Regards Empowering Consumers for the Green Transition through Better Protection against Unfair Practices and Better Information’ (European Commission 2022) COM(2022) 143 final

‘Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on Cooperation between National Authorities Responsible for the Enforcement of Consumer Protection Laws’ (European Commission 2016) COM(2016) 283 final

‘Proposal for a REGULATION OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL LAYING DOWN HARMONISED RULES ON ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE ACT) AND AMENDING CERTAIN UNION LEGISLATIVE ACTS’ (European Commission 2021) COM(2021) 206 final

United States

Deceptive Experiences To Online Users Reduction Act (DETOUR Act) Senate Bill 2708, 118th Congress, introduced July 27, 2023

Cases and decisions of enforcement authorities

Court of Justice of the European Union

Case 8-74 Procureur du Roi v Benoît and Gustave Dassonville (Dassonville) [1974] ECLI:EU:C:1974:82

Case 120/78 Rewe-Zentral AG v Bundesmonopolverwaltung für Branntwein [1979] ECLI:EU:C:1979:42

Case C-362/88 GB-INNO-BM v Confédération du commerce luxembourgeois [1990] ECLI:EU:C:1990:102

Case C-210/96 Gut Springenheide and Tusky v Oberkreisdirektor des Kreises Steinfurt [1998] ECLI:EU:C:1998:369

Case C-122/10 Konsumentombudsmannen v Ving Sverige AB (Ving Sverige) [2011] ECLI:EU:C:2011:299

Case C‑49/11 Content Services Ltd v Bundesarbeitskammer (Content Services) [2012] ECLI:EU:C:2012:419

Case C-429/11 Purely Creative Ltd and Others v Office of Fair Trading (Purely Creative and Others) [2012] ECLI:EU:C:2012:651

Case C-281/12 Trento Sviluppo srl and Centrale Adriatica Soc coop arl v Autorità Garante della Concorrenza e del Mercato (Trento Sviluppo and Centrale Adriatica) [2013] ECLI:EU:C:2013:859

Case C-26/13 Árpád Kásler and Hajnalka Káslerné Rábai v OTP Jelzálogbank Zrt [2014] ECLI:EU:C:2014:282

Case C-195/14 Bundesverband der Verbraucherzentralen und Verbraucherverbände — Verbraucherzentrale — Bundesverband eV v Teekanne GmbH & Co KG [2015] ECLI:EU:C:2015:361

Case C-476/14 Citroën Commerce GmbH v Zentralvereinigung des Kraftfahrzeuggewerbes zur Aufrechterhaltung lauteren Wettbewerbs eV (ZLW) [2016] ECLI:EU:C:2016:527

Case C-310/15 Vincent Deroo-Blanquart v Sony Europe Limited [2016] ECLI:EU:C:2016:633

Case C-611/14 Criminal proceedings against Canal Digital Danmark A/S [2016] ECLI:EU:C:2016:800

Joined Cases C-54/17 and C-55/17 Autorità Garante della Concorrenza e del Mercato v Wind Tre SpA and Vodafone Italia SpA [2018] ECLI:EU:C:2018:710

Case C-52/19 Christian Fülla v Toolport GmbH [2019] ECLI:EU:C:2019:447

Case C-628/17 Prezes Urzędu Ochrony Konkurencji i Konsumentów v Orange Polska SA [2019] ECLI:EU:C:2019:480

Case C-649/17 Bundesverband der Verbraucherzentralen und Verbraucherverbände — Verbraucherzentrale Bundesverband eV v Amazon EU Sàrl [2019] ECLI:EU:C:2019:576

Case C-143/18 Antonio Romano and Lidia Romano v DSL Bank [2019] ECLI:EU:C:2019:701

Case C-266/19 EIS GmbH v TO [2020] ECLI:EU:C:2020:384

Case C-102/20 StWL Städtische Werke Lauf a.d Pegnitz GmbH v eprimo GmbH [2021] ECLI:EU:C:2021:954

Case C‑536/20 UAB ‘Tiketa’ v M Š [2022] ECLI:EU:C:2022:112

Case C-249/21 Fuhrmann-2-GmbH v B [2022] ECLI:EU:C:2022:269

Case C-565/22 Verein für Konsumenteninformation v Sofatutor GmbH [2023] ECLI:EU:C:2023:735

Opinions of Advocates General (Court of Justice of the European Union)

Opinion of Advocate General Wahl in Case C-435/11 CHS Tour Services GmbH vTeam4 Travel GmbH [2013] ECLI:EU:C:2013:403

Opinion of Advocate General Mengozzi in Case C-476/14 Citroën Commerce GmbH v Zentralvereinigung des Kraftfahrzeuggewerbes zur Aufrechterhaltung lauteren Wettbewerbs eV (ZLW) [2015] ECLI:EU:C:2015:814

Opinion of Advocate General Campos Sánchez-Bordona in Joined Cases C-54/17 and C-55/17 Autorità Garante della Concorrenza e del Mercato v Wind Tre SpA and Vodafone Italia SpA [2018] ECLI:EU:C:2018:377

Opinion of Advocate General Campos Sánchez-Bordona in Case C-628/17 Prezes Urzędu Ochrony Konkurencji i Konsumentów v Orange Polska SA [2019] ECLI:EU:C:2019:74

National cases and decisions

France

Tribunal de commerce de Paris – 4 octobre 2011 – Synhorcat c/ Expedia

Bulgaria

Decision No. 14183/03.11.2011 of the Supreme Administrative Court of Bulgaria in Case No. 15182/2010

Latvia

Consumer Rights Protection Centre, Decision No. E03-PTU-K115-39 of 23.10.2012 against Air Baltic

Hungary

Hungarian Competition Authority, Decision No. VJ/17-110/2018 of 28 April 2020

Pending cases

European Union

Case C-646/22 Compass Banca SpA v Autorità Garante della Concorrenza e del Mercato [2023] OJ C24/37

United States

Federal Trade Commission v Amazon.com Inc, 2:23-cv–00932 (WD Washington District Court, filed 21 June 2023)

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Policy documents and studies

‘“Better Regulation” Toolbox’ (European Commission 2023) https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/9c8d2189-8abd-4f29-84e9-abc843cc68e0_en?filename=BR%20toolbox%20-%20Jul%202023%20-%20FINAL.pdf

‘“DARK PATTERNS” AND THE EU CONSUMER LAW ACQUIS: Recommendations for Better Enforcement and Reform’ (BEUC 2022) https://www.beuc.eu/sites/default/files/publications/beuc-x-2022-013_dark_patters_paper.pdf

‘A Coherent Framework for Building Trust in the Digital Single Market for E-Commerce and Online Services’ (European Commission 2012) COM(2011) 942 final

‘Advertising of Prices’ (Office of Fair Trading 2010) https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20140402142426/http://www.oft.gov.uk/shared_oft/market-studies/AoP/OFT1291.pdf

‘Amendments Adopted by the European Parliament on 11 May 2023 on the Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Amending Directives 2005/29/EC and 2011/83/EU as Regards Empowering Consumers for the Green Transition through Better Protection against Unfair Practices and Better Information (COM(2022)0143 – C9-0128/2022 – 2022/0092(COD))’ (European Parliament 2023) T9-0201/2023

‘Amendments Adopted by the European Parliament on 20 January 2022 on the Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on a Single Market For Digital Services (Digital Services Act) and Amending Directive 2000/31/EC (COM(2020)0825 – C9-0418/2020 – 2020/0361(COD))’ (European Parliament 2022) P9_TA(2022)0014

‘Annual Report on European SMEs 2020/2021: Digitalisation of SMEs’ (European Commission 2021) https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/4b9b0f42-dade-11eb-895a-01aa75ed71a1/language-en

‘Barriers to a Well-Functioning Digital Market: Effects of Visual Design and Information Disclosures on Consumer Detriment’ (Konsumentverket 2021) https://stpubshop.blob.core.windows.net/publikationer/underlagsrapport-2021-1-barriers-digital-market-konsumentverket.pdf

‘Better Regulation Guidelines’ (European Commission 2021) SWD(2021) 305 final

‘Bringing Dark Patterns to Light: An FTC Workshop’ (Federal Trade Commission 2021) https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/public_events/1586943/ftc_darkpatterns_workshop_transcript.pdf

‘Call for Evidence for an Impact Assessment – Consumer Protection – Strengthened Enforcement Cooperation’ (European Commission 2022) Ares(2022)6674253

‘Communication to the European Parliament, the Council and the EESC: A New Deal for Consumers’ (European Commission 2018) COM(2018) 183 final

‘Complaint against Amazon Prime’ (Forbrukerrådet 2021) https://storage02.forbrukerradet.no/media/2021/01/complaint-against-amazon-prime.pdf

‘Consumer Behavioural Biases in Competition: A Survey – Final Report’ (Office of Fair Trading 2011) https://londoneconomics.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/Consumer-behavioural-biases-in-competition-OFT1.pdf

‘Contribution from the Multistakeholder Expert Group to the Stock-Taking Exercise of June 2019 on One Year of GDPR Application’ (Multistakeholder Expert Group to support the application of Regulation (EU) 2016/679 2019) https://commission.europa.eu/system/files/2019-10/report_from_multistakeholder_expert_group_on_gdpr_application.pdf

‘Dark Commercial Patterns’ (OECD 2022) https://www.oecd.org/digital/dark-commercial-patterns-44f5e846-en.htm

‘ECC-Net’s Perspective on the EU Fitness Check on Digital Fairness’ (ECC-Net 2022) https://www.eccnet.eu/publication/digital-fairness-fitness-check

‘EU CONSUMER PROTECTION 2.0 Protecting Fairness and Consumer Choice in a Digital Economy’ (BEUC 2022) https://www.beuc.eu/sites/default/files/publications/beuc-x-2022-015_protecting_fairness_and_consumer_choice_in_a_digital_economy.pdf

‘EU Fitness Check on Digital Fairness: Protecting Consumers in Digital Environments’ (Autoriteit Consument & Markt 2022) https://www.acm.nl/en/publications/acms-response-eu-fitness-check-digital-fairness

‘Evidence Review of Online Choice Architecture and Consumer and Competition Harm’ (Competition and Markets Authority 2022) https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1069423/OCA_Evidence_Review_Paper_14.4.22.pdf

‘Factual Summary – Public Consultation on the Fitness Check of EU Consumer Law on Digital Fairness’ (European Commission 2023) Ares(2023)2578495 https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/better-regulation/have-your-say/initiatives/13413-Digital-fairness-fitness-check-on-EU-consumer-law/public-consultation_en

‘Final Report’ (Stigler Committee on Digital Platforms 2019) https://www.chicagobooth.edu/-/media/research/stigler/pdfs/digital-platforms---committee-report---stigler-center.pdf

‘Green Paper on European Union Consumer Protection’ (European Commission 2001) COM(2001) 531 final

‘Guidance on the Implementation/Application of Directive 2005/29/EC on Unfair Commercial Practices’ (European Commission 2016) SWD(2016) 163 final

‘Guidance on the Interpretation and Application of Directive 2005/29/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council Concerning Unfair Business-to-Consumer Commercial Practices in the Internal Market’ (European Commission 2021) Commission Notice 2021/C 526/01

‘Guidance on the Interpretation and Application of Directive 2011/83/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council on Consumer Rights’ (European Commission 2021) Commission Notice 2021/C 525/01

‘Guidelines 4/2019 on Article 25: Data Protection by Design and by Default’ (European Data Protection Board 2020) https://edpb.europa.eu/our-work-tools/our-documents/guidelines/guidelines-42019-article-25-data-protection-design-and_en

‘Guidelines on the Protection of the Online Consumer’ (Autoriteit Consument & Markt 2023) https://www.acm.nl/en/publications/information-for-companies/acm-guideline/guidelines-protection-online-consumer#clear-information

‘Impact Assessment Accompanying the Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on Cooperation between National Authorities Responsible for the Enforcement of Consumer Protection Laws’ (European Commission 2016) SWD(2016) 164 final

‘Improving Online Disclosures with Behavioural Insights’ (OECD 2018) https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/improving-online-disclosures-with-behavioural-insights_39026ff4-en accessed 30 April 2024

‘Improving the Effectiveness of Terms and Conditions in Online Trade’ (Konkurrence- og Forbrugerstyrelsen 2018) https://www.kfst.dk/media/50713/20180621-improving-the-effectiveness-of-terms-and-conditions_ny4.pdf

‘Online Choice Architecture: How Digital Design Can Harm Competition and Consumers’ (Competition and Markets Authority 2022) https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/624c27c68fa8f527710aaf58/Online_choice_architecture_discussion_paper.pdf

‘Online Reviews Gereviewd’ (Autoriteit Consument & Markt 2017) https://www.acm.nl/sites/default/files/old_publication/publicaties/17217_eindrapportage-acm-verkennning-online-reviews-10052017.pdf

‘Partitioned Pricing Research: A Behavioural Experiment’ (Office of Fair Trading 2013) https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20140402142426/http://www.oft.gov.uk/shared_oft/economic_research/OFT1501A.pdf

‘Population Survey Digital Content: On Digital Content Services and Subscription Traps’ (Forbrukerrådet 2020) https://fil.forbrukerradet.no/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/population-survey-digital-content.pdf

‘Principles for Businesses Offering Online Accommodation Booking Services’ (Competition and Markets Authority 2019) https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/781624/webteam_online_booking_services_principles.pdf

‘Reforming Competition and Consumer Policy: Driving Growth and Delivering Competitive Markets That Work for Consumers’ (Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy 2021) CP 488 https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1004096/CCS0721951242-001_Reforming_Competition_and_Consumer_Policy_Web_Accessible.pdf

‘Regulating AI to Protect the Consumer: Position Paper on the AI Act’ (BEUC 2021) https://www.beuc.eu/sites/default/files/publications/beuc-x-2021-088_regulating_ai_to_protect_the_consumer.pdf

‘Report of the Fitness Check on Directive 2005/29/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 May 2005 Concerning Unfair Business-to-Consumer Commercial Practices in the Internal Market and Amending Council Directive 84/450/EEC, Directives 97/7/EC, 98/27/EC and 2002/65/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council and Regulation (EC) No 2006/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council (“Unfair Commercial Practices Directive”); Council Directive 93/13/EEC of 5 April 1993 on Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts; Directive 98/6/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 February 1998 on Consumer Protection in the Indication of the Prices of Products Offered to Consumers; Directive 1999/44/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 May 1999 on Certain Aspects of the Sale of Consumer Goods and Associated Guarantees; Directive 2009/22/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on Injunctions for the Protection of Consumers’ Interests; Directive 2006/114/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 Concerning Misleading and Comparative Advertising’ (European Commission 2017) SWD(2017) 209 final

‘REPORT on the Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council Amending Directive 2011/83/EU Concerning Financial Services Contracts Concluded at a Distance and Repealing Directive 2002/65/EC’ (European Parliament Internal Market and Consumer Protection Committee 2023) A9-0097/2023

‘Report on the Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on Harmonised Rules on Fair Access to and Use of Data (Data Act)’ (European Parliament 2023) A9-0031/2023

‘Richtlijnen Online Reviews: Doen En Laten’ (Autoriteit Consument & Markt 2017) https://www.acm.nl/sites/default/files/old_publication/bijlagen/17218_guidance-reviewwebsites-09052017.pdf

‘Strengthening the Coordinated Enforcement of Consumer Protection Rules’ (BEUC 2022) https://www.beuc.eu/position-papers/strengthening-coordinated-enforcement-consumer-protection-rules

‘Subscription Traps in Europe: EU Study into Public Experiences of Subscription Traps in Six Countries in 2017’ (ECC Sweden 2017) https://www.consumereurope.dk/media/49018/subscription-traps-in-europe-2017.pdf

‘The Danish Government’s Response to the Commission’s Fitness Check on EU Consumer Law on Digital Fairness’ (Justitsministeriet 2023) https://www.ft.dk/samling/20222/almdel/ERU/bilag/137/index.htm

‘TOWARDS EUROPEAN DIGITAL FAIRNESS: BEUC Framing Response Paper for the REFIT Consultation’ (BEUC 2023) https://www.beuc.eu/position-papers/towards-european-digital-fairness-response-paper-refit-consultation

‘User reviews in marketing’ (Forbrukertilsynet, 19 January 2018) https://www.forbrukertilsynet.no/english/guidelines/user-reviews-in-marketing [https://perma.cc/QHM4-992G] accessed 3 May 2024

‘VERBRAUCHERPROBLEME MIT DEM KÜNDIGUNGSBUTTON: Ergebnisse Aus Verbraucheraufruf Und Webseitenanalyse Des Vzbv’ (Verbraucherzentrale Bundesverband 2023) https://www.vzbv.de/sites/default/files/2023-01/23-01-02_Kurzpapier_K%C3%BCndigungsbutton%20%28003%29.pdf

‘What Does Behavioural Economics Mean for Competition Policy?’ (Office of Fair Trading 2010) https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20140402182927/http://www.oft.gov.uk/shared_oft/economic_research/oft1224.pdf

‘YOU CAN LOG OUT, BUT YOU CAN NEVER LEAVE: How Amazon Manipulates Consumers to Keep Them Subscribed to Amazon Prime’ (Forbrukerrådet 2021) https://storage02.forbrukerradet.no/media/2021/01/2021-01-14-you-can-log-out-but-you-can-never-leave-final.pdf

Civic Consulting, ‘Study for the Fitness Check of EU Consumer and Marketing Law: Final Report Part 1 – Main Report’ (European Commission 2017) https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/f7b3958b-772b-11e7-b2f2-01aa75ed71a1/language-en

GfK Belgium, ‘Misleading “Free” Trials and Subscription Traps for Consumers in the EU: Final Report’ (European Commission 2016) https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/bf621260-9441-11e7-b92d-01aa75ed71a1/language-en

GfK Consortium, ‘Behavioural Study on Advertising and Marketing Practices in Online Social Media: Annex 1.5 Legal Assessment of Problematic Practices’ (European Commission 2018) https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/cd3d5f48-cd02-11e8-9424-01aa75ed71a1/language-en

——, ‘Behavioural Study on Advertising and Marketing Practices in Online Social Media: Final Report’ (European Commission 2018) https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/5bfb0ebf-22ef-41d9-aab0-12d3a82ac449_en?filename=osm-final-report_en.pdf

Hunt S, ‘The Technology-Led Transformation of Competition and Consumer Agencies: The Competition and Markets Authority’s Experience’ (Competition and Markets Authority 2022) https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-technology-led-transformation-of-competition-and-consumer-agencies-the-cmas-experience

Lupiáñez-Villanueva F and others, ‘Behavioural Study on Unfair Commercial Practices in the Digital Environment: Dark Patterns and Manipulative Personalisation (Final Report)’ (European Commission 2022) https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2838/859030

Michaelsen F and others, ‘The Impact of Influencers on Advertising and Consumer Protection in the Single Market’ (Study requested by the IMCO committee, European Parliament 2022) https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2022/703350/IPOL_STU(2022)703350_EN.pdf

Muller P and others, ‘Consumer Behaviour in a Digital Environment’ (European Parliament Internal Market and Consumer Protection Committee 2011) https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/etudes/join/2011/464441/IPOL-IMCO_ET(2011)464441_EN.pdf

Riefa C and Coll L, ‘The Transformative Potential of Enforcement Technology (EnfTech) in Consumer Law’ (2024) https://www.enftech.org/report

—— and others, ‘Cross-Border Enforcement of Consumer Law: Looking to the Future – A Report to UNCTAD’s Working Group on e-Commerce, Sub-Working Group 3: Cross-Border Enforcement Cooperation’ (2022) https://unctad.org/system/files/information-document/ccpb_WG_e-commerce_cross-Border_Riefa_en.pdf

Sousa Lourenço J and others, ‘Behavioural Insights Applied to Policy: European Report’ (European Commission 2016) https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC100146

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